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Scientific References Describing Various Properties of Blue-Green Algae or Nutrients Found in Blue-Green Algae

    Hughes, J.H. and Latner, A.L. (1936) Chlorophyll and hemoglobin regeneration after hemorrhage. J. Physiol., 86: 388.

    Trease, G.E. (1936) Textbook of Pharmacognosy, Belliere, Tindall & Cox, London, p.143.


    Gruskin, B. (1940) Chlorophyll, its therapeutic place in acute and suppurative disease. Am. J. Surg., 49: 49-55.

    Sano, M.E. and Smith, L.W. (1942) The effect of lowered temperatures upon the growth of the fibroblast in vitro: its application to wound healing. J. Lab. & Clin. Med., 27: 460-464.

    Gahan, E., Kline, P.R. and Finkle, T.H. (1943) Chlorophyll in the treatment of ulcers. Arch. of Dermatology and Syphilology, 49:848-851.

    Goldberg, S.L. (1943) The use of water soluble chlorophyll in oral sepsis. Am. J. of Surg., (October): 117-123.

    Albrecht, W.A. (1947) Our teeth and our soil, Ann. Dentist., December. Simonsen, J.L. and Barton, D.H.R. (1952) Sesquiterpenes, diterpenes and their derivatives. In: The Terpenes, 3:345-54, Cambridge Press.

    Kopteva, Zh. P. (1970) Biosynthesis of thiamine, riboflavin, and vitamin B12 by some blue-green algae. Mikrobiol. Zh. 32: 429-433.

    Kopteva, Zh. P. (1970) Biosynthesis of biotin, pyridoxine, nicotinic and pantothenic acids by some blue-green algae. Mikrobiol. Zh. 32: 555-560.

    Whistance, G.R. et al. (1970) Biosynthesis of phytoquinones. Homogentisic acid, a precursor of plastoquinones, tocopherols and alpha-tocopherolquinones in higher plants, green algae, and blue-green algae. Biochem. J. 117: 593-600.

    Chao et al., (1971). Purification and properties of glycogen isolated from a blue-green algae, Nostoc muscorum. J. Bacteriol., 105: 331-338.

    DeWille et al. (1979) Effects of essential fatty acid deficiency, and various levels of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids, on humoral immunity in mice. J. Nutr. 109(6): 1018-1027.

    Hoppe, H.A. (1979) Marine algae and their products and constituents in pharmacy, In: Marine Algae in Pharmaceutical Science, Hoppe, H.A., Levring, T., and Tanaka, Y., eds., Walter de Gruyter; Berlin, New York, pp.25-120.

    Immerman, A. (1979) Evidence for intestinal toxemia,an inescapable clinical phenomenon. ACA J. Chiropractic 13:25-36.

    Michanek, G. (1979) Seaweed resources for pharmaceutical uses, In: Marine Algae in Pharmaceutical Science, Hoppe, H.A., Levring, T., and Tanaka, Y., eds., Walter de Gruyter; Berlin, New York, pp.203-235.

    Misra, A. and Sihna, R. (1979) Algae as drug plants in India, In: Marine Algae in Pharmaceutical Science, Hoppe, H.A., Levring, T., and Tanaka, Y., eds., Walter de Gruyter; Berlin, New York, pp.237-242.

    Wettern, M. and Weber, A. (1979) Some remarks on algal carotenoids and their interconversion into animal carotenoids. In: Marine Algae in Pharmaceutical Science, Hoppe, H.A., Levring, T., and Tanaka, Y., eds., Walter de Gruyter; Berlin, New York, 1979, pp.551-568.

    Hansen, R.P. (1980) Phytol: its metabolic products and their distribution. A review. New Zealand Journal of Science, 23:259-73.

    Ebeling, W. (1981) The relation of soil quality to the nutritional value of plant crops, J. Appl. Nutr., 33(1): 24-34.

    Wattenberg, L.W. (1982) Inhibition of chemical carcinogens by minor dietary components. In: Arnott, M.S., van Eys, J. and Wang, Y.M., eds. Molecular Interrelations of Nutrition and Cancer, New York, Raven Press, p.43-46.

    Wright, S. and Burton, J.L. (1982) Oral evening-primrose-seed oil improves atopic eczema. Lancet (Sept. 20):1120-1122. Last revised January 2005

    Ames, B.N. (1983) Dietary carcinogens and anticarcinogens. 221:1256-1264.

    Bear, F.E. (1984) The Firman report (1948), Rutgers University.

    Pore, R.S. (1984) Detoxification of chlordecone poisoned rats with chlorella and chlorella derived sporopollenin. Drug and Chem Toxicol 7(1):57-71.

    Wood, D.A. et al. (1987) Linoleic and eicosapentaenoic acids in adipose tissue and platelets and risk of coronary heart disease. The Lancet (Jan 24):177-183.

    Schwartz, J. and Shklar, G. (1987) Regression of experimental hamster cancer by beta carotene and algae extracts. J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 45:510-515.

    Borowitzka, M.A. (1988) Vitamins and fine chemicals from micro-algae. In: Micro-algal biotechnology, Borowitzke M.A. and Borowitzka J.L., 153-196, Cambridge Press.

    Schwartz, J. et al. (1988) Prevention of experimental oral cancer by extracts of Spirulina-Dunaliella algae. Nutr Cancer, 11:127-134.

    Shklar, G. and Schwartz, J. (1988) Tumor necrosis factor in experimental cancer regression with alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene, canthaxanthin and algae extract. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol, 244(5):839-850.

    Bendich, A. (1989) Carotenoids and the immune response. J. Nutrition 119: 112-115.

    Gustafson, K.R. et al. (1989) Aids-antiviral sulfolipids from cyanobacteria (blue green algae). J Natl Cancer Inst., 81(16):1-4.

    Kromhout, D. (1989) Fish (oil) consumption and coronary heart disease. In: Dietary -3 and -6 Fatty Acids: Biological Effects and Nutritional Essentiality, Galli, C. and Simopoulos, A.P., eds., Plenum Publishing, New York, p. 273-282.

    Kremer, J.M., Lawrence, D.A., and Jubiz, W. (1989) Different doses of fish-oil fatty acid ingestion in active rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective study of clinical and immunological parameters. In: Dietary -3 and -6 Fatty Acids: Biological Effects and Nutritional Essentiality, Galli, C. and Simopoulos, A.P., eds., Plenum Publishing, New York, p. 343-350.

    Renaud, S. et al. (1989) Influence of long-term diet modification on platelet function and composition in Moselle farmers. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 43:136-150.

    Schwartz, J.L., Sloane, D., and Shklar, G. (1989) Prevention and inhibition of oral cancer in the hamster buccal pouch model associated with carotenoid immune enhancement. Tumor Biol, 10:297-309.

    Simopoulos, A.P. (1989) Summary of the NATO advanced research workshop on dietary -3 and -6 fatty acids: biological effects and nutritional essentiality. Am Inst Nutr :521-527.

    Soudamini, K.K. and Kuttan, R. (1989) Inhibition of chemical carcinogenesis by curcumin. J of Ethnopharmacology, 27:227-233.

    Spielmann, D. et al. (1989) Biochemical and bioclinical aspects of blackcurrant seed oil: 3- 6 balanced oil. In: Dietary -3 and -6 Fatty Acids: Biological Effects and Nutritional Essentiality, Galli, C. and Simopoulos, A.P., eds., Plenum Publishing, New York, p. 309-322.

    Cannell, R.J.P. (1990) Algal biotechnology. Appl Biochem & Biotech :85-105.

    Swift, L.L. et al. (1990) Medium-chain fatty acids: evidence for incorporation into chylomicron triglycerides in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 52: 834-836.

    Volesky, B. (1990) Removal and recovery of heavy metals by biosorption. In: Biosorption of Heavy Metals, CRC Press, p. 7-44.

    Anderson K.E. and Kappas A. (1991) Dietary regulation of cytochrome P450. Ann. Rev. Nutr. 11: 141-146.

    Darnall, D.W. (1991) Removal and recovery of heavy metal ions from wastewaters using a new biosorbent; AlgaSORB. Innovative Hazard. Waste Treat. Technol. Ser. 3:65-72.

    Pinto, J.T. (1991) The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions of food and drugs. Top. Clin. Nutr. 6(3): 14-33.

    Simopoulos, A.P. (1991) Omega-3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth and development. Am J Clin Nutr, 54:438-463Batieha, A.M. et al. (1993) Serum micronutrients and the subsequent risk of cervical cancer in a population-based nested case-control study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 2: 335-339.

    Fuhr, U., Klittich, K., Staib, A.H. (1993) Inhibitory effect of grapefruit juice and its bitter principal, naringenin, on CYP1A2 dependent metabolism of caffeine in man. Br. J. Clin. Pharmac. 35: 431-436.

    Le Marchand, L. et al. (1993) Intake of specific carotenoids and lung cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiology 2:183-187.

    Lahitova, N. et al. (1994) Antimutagenic properties of fresh-water blue-green algae. Folia Microbiol 39(4):301-303.

    Morris, D.L. et al. (1994) Serum carotenoids and coronary heart disease. The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial and Follow-up Study. JAMA 272: 1439-1441.

    Bland, J. (1995) Food and nutrient effects on detoxification. Townsend letter (December): 40-44.

    Conquer, J.A. and B.J Holub (1995) Effects of supplementation with an algae source of docosahexaenoic acid on risk factors for heart disease in vegetarians. Abstract of the 64th Congress of the European Atherosclerosis Society, Utrecht, Netherlands, June 10-13.

    Garewal, H.S. et al. (1995) Emerging role of beta-carotene and antioxidant nutrients in prevention of oral cancer. Arch. Otolaryng. 121(2): 141-144.

    Hibbeln, J.R. and Salem, N.J. (1995) Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and depression: when cholesterol does not satisfy. Am J Clin Nutr. 62:1-9.

    Ikins, W.G. Toxins formed as the result of cooking or processing of food. J. Nutr. :435-448, 1995.

    Sevilla, I. and Aguirre, N. (1995) The Nicaragua Report: Study on the Effects of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae on the Nutritional Status and School Performance of First, Second and Third Grade Children Attending the Mosenor Velez School in Nandaime, Nicaragua.

    Stevens, L.J. et al.(1995) Essential fatty acid metabolism in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Clin Nutr, 62:761-768.

    Anari, M.R., Khan, S., and O'Brien, P.J. (1996) The involvement of cytochrome P450 peroxidase in the metabolic bioactivation of cumene hydroperoxide by isolated rat hepatocytes. Chem Res Toxicol 9:924-931.

    Beisel W.R., Nutrition and immune function: Overview, J. Nutr., 126:2611S-2615S, 1996.

    Commandeur, J.N.M. and Vermeulen, N.P.E. (1996) Cytotoxicity and cytoprotective activities of natural compounds. The case of curcumin. Xenobiotica 26(7):667-680.

    Kozlenko, R. and Henson, R.H. (1996) The study of Spirulina, effects on the AIDS virus, cancer and the immune system. Healthy & Natural J. 3(5):66-67.

    Lukaczer, D. The importance of detoxification. What controls our ability to detoxify? Can it be supported or even enhanced? NFM's Nutr Sci News (October):52-55, 1996.

    Matsui, K., Shibutani, M., Hase, T., and Kajiwara, T. (1996) Bell pepper fruit fatty acid hydroperoxide lyase is a cytochrome P450. FEBS Letters, 394:21-24.

    Reigh, G. et al. (1996) Cytochrome P450 species involved in the metabolism of quinoline. Carcinogenesis 17(9): 1989-1996.

    Scholz, R.W. et al. (1996) Inhibition of rat liver microsomal NADPH cytochrome P450 reductase by glutathione and glutathione disulfide. Biochem and Biophys Res Comm, 226:475-480.

    Smith, C.D. and Zhang, X. (1996) Mechanism of action of cryptophycin. J Biological Chem, 271(11):6192-6198.

    Manoukin, R. et al. (1998) Effects of the blue-green algae Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (L.) Ralphs (AFA) on human natural killer cells. In Phytoceuticals: Examining the health benefits and pharmaceutical properties of natural antioxidants and phytochemicals.

    Jensen, G et al. (2000) Consumption of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Has Rapid Effects on the Circulation and Function of Immune Cells in Humans. Journal of the American Nutraceutical Association 2(3):50-58

    Kushak, R. et al. (2000) Favorable Effects of Blue-Green Algae Aphanizomenon flos-aquae on Rat Plasma Lipids. Journal of the American Nutraceutical Association 2(3):59-65

    Li, R., et al. (2000) Taxonomic re-evaluation of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae NH-5 based on morphology and 16S rRNA gene sequences. Hydrobiologia (Kluwer Academic Publishers) 438: 99-105.

    Wayne WC, Drapeau C, Anderson DM, 2000: Harvesting of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Ralfs ex Born. & Flah. Var. flos-aquae (Cyanobacteria) from Klamath Lake for human dietary use. J of Applied Phycology 12:585-595.

    Pugh, N. and Pasco, D.S. Characterization of human monocytes activation by a water soluble preparation of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. JANA vol. 2 (3): 59-65 Phytomedicine vol. 8 (6): 445-453

    Pugh, N., et al. (2001) Isolation of Three High Molecular Weight Polysaccharide Preparations with Potent Immunostimulatory Activity from Spirulina platensis, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Planta Med 67 (2001) 737-742.

    Kumar, K., et al. (2003) Bioregulatory and Therapeutic Effects of Blue Green Algae. Indian Journal of Microbiology, vol. 43, no1, pp. 9-16. Association of Microbiologists of India.

    Li, R., Carmichael, W., and Pereira, P. (2003) Morphological and 16S rRNA gene evidence for reclassification of the paralytic shellfish toxin producing Aphanizomenon flos-aquae LMECYA 31 as Aphanizomenon Issatschenkoi (Cyanophyceae). Journal of Applied Phycology, volume 39, pages 814-818.

    Romay Ch., Gonzalez R, Ledon N, Remirez D, Rimbau V, 2003: C-Phycocyanin: A Biliprotein with Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory and Neuroprotective Effects. Current Protein and Peptide Science; 4:207-216.



    Benedetti, S., et al. (2004) Antioxidant properties of a novel phycocyanin extract from the blue-green alga Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. Life Sciences , Volume 75, Issue 19, pp. 2353-2362.

    Vitale, S., et al. (2004) A Randomized, Placebo-controlled, Crossover Clinical Trial of Super Blue-green Algae in Patients With Essential Blepharospasm or Meige Syndrome, American Journal of Ophthamology, Elsevier Inc., Vol. 138, No. 1, pp. 18-32.

    Dietrich D, Hoeger S, 2005: Guidance values for microcystins in water and cyanobacterial supplement products (blue-green algal supplements): a reasonable or misguided approach? Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology;203:273-289.


    Benedetti S, Rinalducci S, Benvenuti F, Francogli S, Pagliarani S, Giorgi L, Micheloni M, D’Amici GM, Zolla L, Canestrari F. 2006: Purification and characterization of phycocyanin from the blue-green alga Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. Mar 20;833(1):12-8.


    Miyamoto E, Tanioka Y, Nakao T, Barla F, Inui H, Fujita T, Watanabe F, Nakano Y. 2006: Purification and characterization of a corrinoid-compound in an edible cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon flos-aquae as a nutritional supplementary food. J Agric food chem. Dec 13;54(25):9604-7.


    Hart An, Zaske LA, Patterson KM, Drepeau C, Jensen GS. 2007: Natural killer cell activation and modulation of chemokine receptor profile in vitro by an extract from the cyanophyta Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. J Med Food, Sep;10(3):435-41.


    Kuriakose GC, Kurup MG, 2008: Evaluation of Renoprotective Effect of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae on Cisplatin-Induced Renal Dysfunction in Rats. Renal Failure;30:717-725.


    Baroni L, Scoglio S, Benedetti S, Bonetto C, Pagliarani S, Beneditte Y, Rocchi M, Canestrari F, 2009: Effect of a Klamath algae product (AFA-B12) on blood levels of vitamin B12 and homocysteine in vegan subjects: a pilot study. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res.;79(2):117-123.


    Rasmussen HE, Martinez I, Lee JY, Walter J, 2009: Alteration of the gastrointestinal microbiota of mice by edible blue-green algae. J Applied Microbiology;107:1108-1118.


    Yomamoto Y, Nakahara H, 2009: Life Cycle of Cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. Taiwania;54(2):113-117.


    Kuriakose GC, Kurup MG. 2010: Antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Linn against paracetamol intoxication in rats. Indian J Exp. Biol. Nov;48(11):123-30.


    Last revised February 2011